TY  - RPRT
        AU  - Almeida, Vanda
AU  - Brunelli, Filippo
AU  - Caisl, Jakub
AU  - Giordano, Alessandro
AU  - Hoffmann, Claire
AU  - Königs, Sebastian
AU  - Moreno-Monroy, Ana
AU  - Pacheco, Tainá
AU  - Salazar-Lozada, Mauricio
        TI  - Geographic Disparities in Service Accessibility in Estonia and the Netherlands: How Transport Modes, Proximity and Capacity Shape Accessibility Across Cities, Towns and Rural Areas
        PY  - 2026/Jul/
        PB  - Institute of Labor Economics (IZA)
        CY  - Bonn
        T2  - IZA Discussion Paper
        IS  - 18811
        UR  - https://www.iza.org/publications/dp18811
        AB  - Access to enabling services is an important determinant of labour market participation and social inclusion. This paper examines the role of capacity constraints and public transport access in shaping the accessibility of early childhood education and care (ECEC), primary schools and Public Employment Services (PES) at the municipal level and across degrees of urbanisation in Estonia and the Netherlands, drawing on data on service locations, capacity, enrolment and local transport infrastructure. The results confirm a clear urban-rural gradient in physical accessibility. However, proximity alone provides an incomplete picture: people in more densely populated areas benefit from shorter travel times, but high demand pressure and capacity constraints can result in lower competitive accessibility compared to less densely populated areas. In both countries, 13% to 14% of children in primary school face a double disadvantage of longer travel times and below-median competitive accessibility. For PES, geographic disparities in public transport provision can represent a source of vulnerability for people without access to a private motor vehicle.
        KW  - access to essential services
KW  - accessibility
KW  - transport networks
KW  - public employment services
KW  - early childhood education and care (ECEC)
KW  - primary education
KW  - service capacity
KW  - Estonia
KW  - Netherlands
        ER  -